Nervous System

Important Concepts

1. Able to describe the anatomy of neuron and nerve using diagrams.
2. Know the basic anatomical brain structure and spinal cord.
3. Understand the reflex arc from the sensory afferent nerve fibres, through the spinal cord to the efferent nerve fibre.
4. Understand the mechanism of nerve impulse.
5. Understand the major anatomical structures of  brain and meninges.
6. Understand the transmission of an impulse across the synapse.
7. Able to describe the formation and flow of cerebrospinal fluid from its origin.
8. Name and describe the cranial nerves.
9. Understand the autonomic nervous system. 

Reproductive System

Important Concepts

1. Understand basic reproductive structure in male and female in different species.
2. Able to make comparative anatomical reproductive tract in different species.
3. Know the physiological of female reproductive system.
4. Understand the estrous cycle and factors that influence its stages.
5. Understand the production of semen, its composition and organ contribute to its formation.
6. Name and describe the layers of uterus.

Endocrine System

Important Concepts

1.Understand the major endocrine organs and its functions.
2. List of hormones produced by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, and target organs of each.
3. Feedback mechanism that control the release of each hormones.
4. Understand the basic functions of each hormones produced by endocrine glands.

Urinary System

Important concepts

1. Name and describe the vascular supply to the Kidney.

2. Understand the parts of the nephron.

3. Describe the functions of urinary system.

4. Understand the blood pressure regulation by the kidneys.

5. Understand the physiological principles and factors involved in animal's ability to concentrate urine.

6. Understand the comparative anatomy of kidneys in different species.

7. understand the physiology and mechanism of micturation and test needed to diagnose  urinary incontinence.

Respiratory System

Important Concepts

1. Understand the function of each component of respiratory system.

2. Describe the air flow from the nose to alveoli of the lung.

3. Understand the parts of the larynx and its cartilage,

4. Describe comparative anatomy of the lungs of different species.

5. Understand the flow of air between the air sacs and lungs of the bird and their  connection to the pneumatic bones.

6. Understand the various methods of measuring lung volumes and capacities.

7. Understand the concept of dead space.

 

Cardiovascular System

Important concepts

1. Name and describe the layers of the heart and layers of an artery.
2. understand how heart is positioned in chest and how that relates to sites used to auscultate and heart sound.
3.  Understand and describe the flow of blood through the heart.
4. Explain the operation of atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves and their relationship to the heart sound.
5. Understand the pulmonary, systemic and portal systems of blood flow.
6. Understand the pathway of electrical conductivity through heart, and how it produces the electrocardiogram.
7. Understand the arterial blood pressure and how to measure it.

Clinical significance

1. Recording the Electrocardiogram

2. Measurement of Blood Pressure

3. Auscultation of heart Valve 

 

 

 

 

 

Gross Anatomy Heart and Lung of  Equine

Digestive System

The digestive system is made up of alimentary tract and accessory digestive organs. The purpose is to ingest, digest and to absorb food and to eliminate the undigested remains as feces. Besides that, it also provide the body with nutrient, water and electrolytes that are essential for health and growth.

Functional anatomy of GIT

I. Oral cavity (Mouth)
Teeth- cutting, reduce size of ingested food particles by grinding
Tongue- muscular organ, extremely mobile, taste buds- numerous papillae
Pharynx-common passage to air and food, proper directing of air to air passage and foo and liquid to esophagus
II. Stomach
Esophagus-Muscular tube
                    – from pharynx to stomach through thoracic cavity, diaphragm
                    -Constriction waves of muscular contractions (peristaltic movement)

Simple & compound stomach
III. Intestines
Small- Duodenum, jejenum, ileum
Large-cecum,colon, rectum
IV. Accessory organs 
Salivary glands- I)Parotid  ii)Sublingual  III)Mandibular f(X)-buffering action in ruminants
 -Digestion of carbohydrate by amylase evaporation and cooling in panting animals
Pancreas-both an endocrine gland producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon,brittanna, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide, and a digestive organ, secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that assist the absorption of nutrients and the digestion in the small intestine.
Liver-metabolic roles,detoxification,carbohydrate metabolism and storage of glycogen, produce bile

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

1.Bloating

2. Exocrine  pancreatic insufficiency

3. Bovine Viral Diarrhea and Mucosal Disease Complex

other disease that related to Digestive system:  

http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/toc_20000.htm

Muscular System

The muscular system is closely related to the nervous system. It is a fact that animals can consciously control the contraction of the certain muscles. These muscle are classified as voluntary muscles. While the other types of muscles that move independently of conscious are known as involuntary  muscles. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary. Cardiac muscle in striated and involuntary and smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary.

 

 

 

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE 

Creatinine Kinase ( CK) is the very importance enzyme found within muscle. Creatine kinase (CK), also known as creatine phosphokinase (CPK) or phospho-creatine kinase (and sometimes incorrectly as creatinine kinase), is an enzyme (EC 2.7.3.2) expressed by various tissues and cell types. CK catalyses the conversion of creatine and consumes adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to create phosphocreatine (PCr) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). This CK enzyme reaction is reversible, such that also ATP can be generated from PCr and ADP. ^{( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creatine_kinase)}.

The CK level can rise slightly from minor muscular injuries because of the release of the CK from the cells. Damage can be minor due to the such events as receiving an intramuscular injection injection, persistent recumbency, bruising, a laceration or hypothermia. As a result, there is considerable muscle  damage.Thus, CK level will elevate dramatically.

^{1. Rhabdomyolysis In Horse}

Rhabdomyo- refers to skeletal muscle and lysis means to rupture. In this condition, muscle damage occurs because of the breakdown of the skeletal muscle cells. These conditions usually occur in heavily muscled horses that are working or training and have been rested for one or more days, but keep on full feed during that period. When returned to exercise, these horses may develop myopathy. The result pathology is myonecrosis and severity of the disease is directly related to the extent of the necrosis. When a sufficient amount of muscle breakdown, it liberates myoglobin and CK and among other chemicals into bloodstream. When a sufficient amount of myoglobin has been released, urine will appear coffee-colored because of its presence.






Further Reading
1.http://www.ker.com/library/advances/161.pdf
2. http://www.cvm.umn.edu/umec/lab/RER_new/home.html

 

 

The integumentary System

The integument system  includes of the skin and its derivatives, which are the accessory organs of the skin. The skin consists of the epidermis and dermis. The dermis is attached to the underlying hypodermis or subcutis ( subcutaneous tissues), which is composed mostly of adipose tissues and its attached to muscle and bone underneath. The accessory organs of the skin include the sweat, sebaceous and mammary glands, as well as hair or feather follicles, claws, hooves, beak and scales.

  

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE 

Since the skin is the largest organ of the animal's body and cover the animal's exterior , it is subjected to many types of injurious agents. Dermatology is the study of the the skin and its associated disease. The skin must protect the animal from becoming over hydrated during immersion in water, from becoming dehydrated during exposure to heat or sun and from the a variety of bacterial, viral, fungal,and parasitic agents.

1. Demodectic Mange

When an animal become infested with the mite Demodex canis , this condition is known as demodectic mange. These mite have the ability to burrow into the skin along the hair shafts and to reside around the  hair follicle. This parasite is found almost  all in dogs and some cats.

 The treatment is aimed at getting rid of the mites and the secondary bacterial complications. Usually, as the animal matures, its immune system will also mature and prevent future infestations and secondary infections.

Further information:
1. http://www.animalhealth.bayerhealthcare.com/4907.0.html 
2.  http://cal.vet.upenn.edu/projects/parasit06/website/lab9.htm
 

 
 

Veterinary Anatomy : Arthrology

Joint = Articulation = Union of two or more bones
Classification:
1)Fibrous joints — immobile joints, united by fibrous tissue, may ossify with age.
Three types are recognized:
a) Suture = [L. seam] undulating seams between bones of the skull
b)Gomphosis = tooth in an alveolus, united by periodontal ligament
c) Syndesmosis = bones joined by ligaments, e.g., [radius & ulna] and [tibia & fibula]
2)Cartilaginous joints — immobile joints, united by cartilage, ossify with age.
Two types are recognized:
a)Symphysis = [G. grow together] fibrocartilage union,
e.g., pelvic symphysis; mandibular symphysis; (also, intervertebral disk)
b) Synchondrosis = hyaline cartilage union, e.g., physis
3)Synovial joints — mobile joints, fibrous tissue enclosing a synovial cavity
Classified on the basis of synovial joint
1) Number of bones:
Simple joint = formed by two bones, e.g., shoulder joint
Compound joint = formed by more than two bones, e.g.,
elbow joint, carpal joint
2)Shape:
Hinge (ginglymus) joint = movement in one plane
Ball & socket (spheroid) joint = capable of circumduction
Plane joint = gliding action, e.g., vertebral articular processes
also, Ellipsoid, Saddle, Condylar, Trochoid

Veterinary Anatomy : Osteology

1. Bone Classification Schemes
Development:
a) Endochondral bones — develop from cartilage precursors (most bones)
b) Intramembranous bones — directly from mesenchyme (fascia) (bones of calvaria & face)
Location:
a) Axial skeleton — head, vertebral column ( including tail),ribs & sternum
b) Appendicular skeleton — bones of limbs, including scapula & os coxae(hip bone)
c) Heterotopic bones — os penis [ carnivore; rodent ] os cardis [ cattle ]
Shape:
1) Long bones — length greater than diameter
2) Short bones — approximately equivalent dimensions
3)Flat bones — e.g., scapula, os coxae, many bones of skull
4)Irregular bones — short & multiple processes (vertebrae)
5)Sesamoid bones — small “seed-like” within tendons,e.g., patella (knee cap)

Bone Functions
1)Support-body shape & weight
2) Levers- to perform work
3)Protection of vulnerable organs
4)Ca++ & PO4- -reservoir for ions
5)Red Marrow-source of blood cells

 Bone Composition
1)Collagen fibers-by weight: 1/3 of bone
                              -by volume: 1/2 of bone
2)Hydroxyapatite crystals-(Ca)10(PO4)6(OH)2
3) 95% solid (vs. water)
 4) 65% mineral; 35% organic

Veterinary Anatomy: Connective Tissue Structures

1.0 Histologic types of connective tissue (c.t.):
1) Loose areolar c.t. — low fiber density, contains spaces that can be filled with fat or fluid (edema)
[found: throughout body, under skin as superficial fascia and in many places as deep fascia]
2) Dense irregularly arranged c.t. — high density of collagen fibers, oriented in variable directions
[found: dermis; deep fascia in some locations; periosteum; fibrous joint capsule]
3) Dense regularly arranged c.t. — high density of parallel fibers, forming sheets, bands, or cords
[found: aponeuroses; ligaments; tendons]

 1.2 Connective tissue structures identifiable in gross anatomy:
1) Dermis  — the physically tough/strong component of skin (deep to epidermis)
2) Tendon — attaches muscle to bone (called aponeurosis when sheet-like)
3) Ligament — attaches bone to bone (usually thickenings of fibrous joint capsules)
4) Fascia  — collagenous fibrous tissue that hold the body together

      I.  superficial fascia = subcutaneous tissue between skin & muscles/bone (body wall)

                       - regionally variable in amount (site for subcutaneous injection)

                       - contains: cutaneous muscle, mammary tissue, fat (also edema fluid)

                          [e.g., cutaneous trunci m.; superficial muscles of facial expression]

      II.  deep fascia = packing/binding tissue surrounding muscles, bones, & organs

                       - compartmentalize skeletal muscles & gives rise to aponeuroses